pericles' death cause

Two major events coincide with the beginning and end of Pericles’ rule – the Persian and Peloponnesian wars respectively. [ι] He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC, having once again under his control the levers of power. [46] Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first ratified in 463 BC (making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace), and renegotiated at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus, taking force again by 449–448 BC. Pericles - Pericles - Restoring Athens’s preeminence: Hostilities among the Greek states had also come to an end in the Five Years’ Truce of 451. According to Aristotle, Pericles' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent, Cimon, was both rich and generous, and was able to gain public favor by lavishly handing out portions of his sizable personal fortune. Pericles is an average height gladiator with dark skin and long dreadlocks. [143] Kagan estimates Pericles' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian War to be about 2,000 talents annually, and based on this figure concludes that he would have only enough money to keep the war going for three years. This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory and gave work to its people. [27] His most controversial measure, however, was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.[28]. [88] Therefore, he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against Corinth. Sophocles also has the plague as the centerpiece of his play Oedipus the King. Even when in the face of mounting pressure, Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy. [69] When the Samians revolted against Athenian rule, Pericles compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months, which resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors. Anaxagoras, in particular, became a close friend and influenced him greatly. Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, but died of disease in 449 BC. Pericles was born c. 495 BC, in Athens, Greece. [34] In contrast, Donald Kagan asserts that the democratic measures Pericles put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political strength. [92] At that time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles' instructions. Our polity does not copy the laws of neighboring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. (Symposium, 201d) He also mentions the recent death of Pericles (Gorgias 503e), but not its cause. [61] Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC. [22], Thucydides argues that Pericles "was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people". The process by which the Delian League transformed into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before Pericles' time,[59] as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens instead of manning ships for the league's fleet, but the transformation was speeded and brought to its conclusion by Pericles. His decree was passed but rescinded the next day, in time to save Mytilene. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant o… For men can endure to hear others praised only so long as they can severally persuade themselves of their own ability to equal the actions recounted: when this point is passed, envy comes in and with it incredulity. He offered her to another husband, with the agreement of her male relatives. The Ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) adopted Ephialtes' proposal without opposition. Kagan estimates Pericles' expenditure on his military strategy … He rea… [144] It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character. [κ][1] On the other hand, in one of his dialogues, Plato rejects the glorification of Pericles and declares: "as I know, Pericles made the Athenians slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees". If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if to social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. In 442 BC, the Athenian public voted to ostracize Thucydides from the city for 10 years and Pericles was once again the unchallenged ruler of the Athenian political arena. Unfortunately, during the siege, a plague spread through Athens and its allies, but not to its enemies, killing many, including Pericles himself and most of his family. He had rallied Athenians to continue supporting the war despite grave losses. [17], In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy, demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens. [δ] Without opposition after the expulsion of Cimon, the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the unchallengeable ruler of Athens. [ο] This might, however, be the result of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, and the niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon. [31], According to Samons, Pericles believed that it was necessary to raise the demos, in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance. The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, Martin, Thomas R. An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander (Pericles' citizenship law), The Revolt of Samos (Demo Fragmentary Texts), Museum of the Center for the Acropolis Studies, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pericles&oldid=998901328, Articles with dead external links from October 2017, CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown, Articles containing Attic Greek-language text, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. This kind of speech was generally given at a mass funeral, to … He analyses how people responded to the plague – their selfishness and apathy. According to George Cawkwell, a praelector in ancient history, with this decree Pericles breached the Thirty Years' Peace "but, perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse". [159] Kakridis proposes that it is impossible to imagine Pericles deviating away from the expected funeral orator addressing the mourning audience of 430 after the Peloponnesian war. This statement would appeal to any audience and gain followers for his cause because by nature humans long for an everlasting legacy. Plutarch says "granddaughter" of Cleisthenes. A Critical Analysis of Athenian Democracy, Ash, Thomas. Through the use of syntax and diction, Pericles points out the gallant and glorious men who have died in the war, essentially saying that they died for a just cause. As a reelected strategos and a persuasive orator, Pericles was the spokesman of a civic religion that was undergoing a mutation. As a result of Sparta’s superiority on land during the Peloponnesian wars, Pericles ordered the retreat of Athenians into the city walls of Athens. The ambitious new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides (not to be confused with the historian of the same name), accused Pericles of profligacy, criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan. Two major events coincide with the beginning and end of Pericles’ rule – the Persian and Peloponnesian wars respectively. [35] After all, Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law, after he returned from exile in 451 BC.[36]. After Thucydides' ostracism, Pericles was re-elected yearly to the generalship, the only office he ever officially occupied, although his influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state. What is interesting about Thucydides’ accounts though is that he not only records the epidemic from a medical perspective, but also from a social one. [13] Temporarily, he managed to tame the people's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies' final bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents. He learned music from the masters of the time (Damon or Pythocleides could have been his teacher)[14][15] and he is considered to have been the first politician to attribute importance to philosophy. Young Prince of Tyre, you have at large received The danger of the task you undertake. Significance of Pericles' Death 1270 Words | 6 Pages. Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts: first that by rejecting minor concessions it brought about war; second, that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility; third, that it was too feeble to exploit any opportunities; and fourth, that it depended on Pericles for its execution and thus was bound to be abandoned after his death. Pericles, born in 495 B.C., was a Greek statesman, orator, and general who led Athens during its golden age. [89] In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the Battle of Potidaea; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth's lasting hatred of Athens. [107] Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him. [22] He first proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying, with the state covering the cost of their admission. The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries. [55], In 444 BC, the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle. [66] In 449 BC Pericles proposed a decree allowing the use of 9,000 talents to finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples. [162], Gorgias, in Plato's homonymous dialogue, uses Pericles as an example of powerful oratory. The Athenians had lost one of their greatest leaders. [139], In politics, Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of Pericles' legacy is Athenian imperialism, which denies true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state. It might have been smallpox, a fungal poisoning called ergotism, or something worse. [41] Pericles may have realized the importance of Cimon's contribution during the ongoing conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians. After initially subsiding, the plague of Athens returned twice – once in 429 B.C. Through this connection of the two opposites, Pericles can convince his listeners that liberty is of the utmost importance to the survival of Athens and its people. [23] The historian Loren J. Samons II argues, however, that Pericles had enough resources to make a political mark by private means, had he so chosen. Vlachos points out that he does not know who wrote the oration, but "these were the words which should have been spoken at the end of 431 BC". Legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a similar dream before the birth of his son, Alexander the Great. [134] His strategy is said to have been "inherently unpopular", but Pericles managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it. Nonetheless, the "serious purpose" (namely the bribery) was so obvious to the auditors that they approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery. [43] In 451–450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus. [168], To analyze Pericles's relations with gods, one has to position oneself at the intersection of the general and the particular, where what was personal and what was shared by the whole community came together. [170], Pericles' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age, much of which survive to this day. "Pericles' Funeral Oration from the Peloponnesian War (Book 2.34-46)." [39] He then unsuccessfully tried to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf, before returning to Athens. [γ][9], According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a few nights before Pericles' birth, that she had borne a lion. [76], Aspasia, who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens to satisfy Pericles' perversions. The campaign culminated in disaster; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed. Thucydides also mentions how terrible it was to see how people who fell ill lost all hope for survival, almost as if they accepted their fate without resistance. [90] The Athenians' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious. [135] For his part, Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer. Kagan's view is that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean liberals and Cimonian conservatives. In 429 B.C. It is not known what caused his death – plague or grief.

When Pericles was still just a toddler, Persia attempted to conquer Greece but was defeated at Marathon. [163] In Menexenus, however, Socrates (through Plato) casts aspersions on Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming ironically that, since Pericles was educated by Aspasia, a trainer of many orators, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon. His early years were quiet; the introverted young Pericles avoided public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies. Plutarch describes these allegations without espousing them. [117] This relationship aroused many reactions and even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father. Through bribery and negotiations, Pericles defused the imminent threat, and the Spartans returned home. In 440 BC Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale. Pericles is said to have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus,[44] although some researchers, such as Karl Julius Beloch, argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon's policy. For most, the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle. In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy. [70], After Pericles divorced his wife, he had a long-term relationship with Aspasia of Miletus, with whom he had a son, Pericles the Younger. The fact that he was at the same time a vigorous statesman, general and orator only tends to make an objective assessment of his actions more difficult. When Mytilene, which had revolted against Athens, fell in 427, Cleon proposed that all its citizens be put to death and the women and children enslaved. According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, "rather than to submit to coercive demands, Pericles chose war". From The Delian League To The Athenian Empire, Jebb, R.C. The number is pretty low, obviously, but Pericles of Athens was one such man to earn the distinction. [47], John Fine, in contrast, suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450–449 BC, due to Pericles' calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens' ability to spread its influence in Greece and the Aegean. According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, because Athens, after Pericles' death, sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy. Pericles’ Funeral Oration Why do we fight wars if they just cause death and sorrow? [49] Some historians think that he wanted to prompt a confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities; others think he wanted to assert Athenian pre-eminence. [6], The democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politics, and Pericles seemed willing to follow a populist policy to cajole the public. [20], Thucydides (the historian), an admirer of Pericles, maintains that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen". In 454 BC he attacked Sicyon and Acarnania. According to Aristotle, Aristodicus of Tanagra killed Ephialtes. [94] Consequently, Pericles asked the Spartans to offer a quid pro quo. [38] If it was actually made, this bargain would constitute a concession on Pericles' part that he was not a great strategist. He himself died of the plague later in the year. [45], Complicating the account of this period is the issue of the Peace of Callias, which allegedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians. Pericles witnessed both his legitimate sons from his first wife, Paralus and Xanthippus fall fatally ill with the plague. However, with the development of recent methods such as forensic anthropology, demography, epidemiology, and paleopathology (including DNA testing); we will likely see a more accurate diagnosis of the plague of Athens come to light. [118] Nonetheless, objections did not undermine Pericles' morale, although he burst into tears to protect Aspasia when she was accused of corrupting Athenian society. Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics "with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife". [10][8] One interpretation of the dream treats the lion as a traditional symbol of greatness, but the story may also allude to the unusually large size of Pericles' skull, which became a popular target of contemporary comedians (who called him "Squill-head", after the squill or sea-onion). One should note though that Plato doesn't mention other momentous contemporary events, e.g. This famous speech was written by Thucydides, but given by Pericles sometime during Athens’ Pelponnesian War. Vlachos criticizes the historian for this omission and maintains that Thucydides' admiration for the Athenian statesman makes him ignore not only the well-grounded accusations against him but also the mere gossips, namely the allegation that Pericles had corrupted the volatile rabble, so as to assert himself. For heroes have the whole earth for their tomb; and in lands far from their own, where the column with its epitaph declares it, there is enshrined in every breast a record unwritten with no tablet to preserve it, except that of the heart. [131] Pericles also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens, which, it has been suggested, radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations. Thucydides initially managed to incite the passions of the ecclesia regarding these charges in his favor. [104] When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, Pericles proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval forces. [150], Ancient Greek writers call Pericles "Olympian" and extol his talents; referring to him "thundering and lightning and exciting Greece" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating. [θ] In any case, the city's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and Pericles was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides. Ioannis Kakridis and Arnold Gomme were two scholars who debated the originality of Pericles' oratory and last speech. Do you have an ancestral connection to ancient Athenians? [60], The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. [72], Between 438–436 BC Pericles led Athens' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of the region. On the one hand, the career of the strategos will illuminate the Athenians' collective relationship to all that was divine. During the Second Sacred War Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign rights on the oracle. The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed, and its particulars and negotiation are ambiguous. Pericles(roughly 495-429 BC) was an extremely influential statesman, orator, and general of ancient Athens. During the same period, Pericles proposed the Megarian decree, which resembled a modern trade embargo. Trace your ancestry to find out. He was certain that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between Pericles and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later. [71] Pericles then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and, when he returned to Athens, gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition. [ζ] Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the reason for the war was Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth. Finally, there were relations involving irreverence: some later and less trustworthy sources made much of several trials for impiety in which those close to him were involved, and this raises the question of religious tolerance in fifth-century Athens and, in particular, how far individuals enjoyed freedom of thought when faced with the civic community. The plague killed many Athenians in 430 B.C., during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (between Athens and Sparta). Throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. [η], Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not conceal its envy of Athens' pre-eminence, was inevitable if unfortunate. Vlachos maintains that Thucydides' narration gives the impression that Athens' alliance had become an authoritarian and oppressive empire, while the historian makes no comment for Sparta's equally harsh rule. According to Vlachos, Thucydides must have been about 30 years old when Pericles delivered his Funeral Oration and he was probably among the audience. [162] The biographer points out, however, that the poet Ion reported that Pericles' speaking style was "a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address, and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others". After his death, the government of Athens became unstable and was not able to get organized in order to continue fighting the war. The residents of Histiaea, meanwhile, who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers. [113] This is considered to be a monumental oration, revealing Pericles' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingratitude. [118] Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir,[120][121] a decision all the more striking in consideration that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.[122]. [20] If this was so, Pericles must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC – in his early or mid-thirties. He has a lean muscular body type suited for his fighting style, that of the thraex. Unfortunately, when the plague reached Athens, this meant that with a large amount of people in the confined space of the city walls, it spread rapidly. [13], His family's nobility and wealth allowed him to fully pursue his inclination toward education. Within this context, participation in the rituals was an action highly political in the broadest sense of the term. [13] In matters of character, Pericles was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians, since "he kept himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether indifferent to money-making". [132], During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles initiated a defensive "grand strategy" whose aim was the exhaustion of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo. Hence, the historian's hinted assertion that Greek public opinion espoused Sparta's pledges of liberating Greece almost uncomplainingly seems tendentious. Anthony J. Podlecki argues, however, that Pericles' alleged change of position was invented by ancient writers to support "a tendentious view of Pericles' shiftiness". Internet Pericles' death was significant. [110] The exact identity of the disease is uncertain; typhus or typhoid fever are suspected, but this has been the source of much debate. The plague of Athens was one of a number of epidemics that has swept through Greece since antiquity. Pericles is known as the most prominent Athenian leader during the Peloponnesian War. Aspasia of Miletus (c. 470-410 BCE) was a teacher, writer, and intellectual in Athens, Greece, who became famous as the lover of the statesman Pericles (l. 495-429 BCE). [171] The promotion of such an arrogant imperialism is said to have ruined Athens. In 455 Tolmides ravaged Laconia and secured Naupactus on the Corinthian gulf; in 454 Pericles himself defeated the Sicyonians, and made a descent upon Oeniadae at the mouth of the gulf, and in 453 conducted a cleruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. Pericles, following Athenian custom, was first married to one of his closest relatives, with whom he had two sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, but around 445 BC, Pericles divorced his wife. [164] He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles. [β] He was the son of the politician Xanthippus, who, though ostracized in 485–484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. [114] Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and, according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather than useful. [135] It is for that reason that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history. [26], After Cimon's ostracism, Pericles continued to promote a populist social policy. Just before his death, Pericles' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies. 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